The Golden Age Of Athens

The gold Age Of capital of GreeceThe favorable Age of capital of Greece, the Age of Pericles, and Pentekontaetia be wholly piddles for the time period when capital of Greece reached its height of precedent and prosperity. It began in 478 B.C. and lasted for approximately fifty course of studys until 431 B.C. In the beginning of its so-c on the wholeed Golden Age, capital of Greece was just coming bring out of the Persian warfares as attractor of the Delian League, and they were beginning their climb to source. At the end of this prosperous era, capital of Greece had made huge advance custodyts in their government, architecture, art, literature, science, and philosophy. Their accomplishments in these areas influence es proposeially e very aspect of confederation today.Before the Golden Age, capital of Greece was like other city- affirms in Greece. They were non the superpower of the country in fact, they were non very significant at all during this time. capital of Gree ce was located on the peninsula of Attica, and it was the plainly part of chief(prenominal) domain of a function Greece that remained Ionian and did not submit to the Dorian invasion. After the Dorian invasion, capital of Greece did not have a Democracy they had an oligarchy like m either of the other city-states in Greece. In Athens, the Acropolis which was the highest part of the city, was the front more or less site of settlement because it was easily defendable with its steep slopes. Eventually, a primal fortress was built, and it encompassed the city.The first law code of Athens was created in 621 B.C. by Athenian nobleman Draco. However, this law code was harsh and only favored the oligarchs, and thither were rules such as a creditor could enslave a debtor if they didnt repay the debt, and the remnant penalty was given for the smallest crimes. Eventually, in 594 B.C., Solon changes Athens laws. He abolished all of Dracos harsh rules, and he gave citizens a larger voice. S olon created the first Assembly however, poor citizens were not allowed to hold government jobs. He in any case helped establish the get hold ofing close together of Democracy, although Athens would not become a full Democracy until 5th Century B.C.The classics fell under Persian rule, further although they were not enslaved, they had to pay taxes and single-year tributes to the Persians. In 499 B.C, the Ionian Greeks, led by Aristagoras, revolted against Persian rule. There were several battles surrounded by the Greeks and the Persians before they were independent once again. The first major battle was the action of Marathon fought in 490 B.C, and it was essentially amidst Athens and Persia. At this time, Athens did not have the strong fleet that it had during its Golden Age. The Athenians needed help, so they sent Phidippides, a professional go then(prenominal)ner, to ask Sparta for help. Yet, the Spartans did not send soldiers until well into the war, and the battles outcome looked bleak for the Greeks.However, hope was not lost for the Athenians they received help from Plataea, who sent 9,000 men to join the Athenians at Marathon. The Greeks used the hoplite formation to defeat the Persians. At the end of the battle, 6,400 Persians died, whereas the Athenians only lost 192 men. Phidippides was then sent from Marathon to Athens to alert the Athenians of their victory. The run was a little over twenty-six miles long, and he died immediately after giving the good news. Today, the marathon races run today represent Phidippides journey and they are held in honor of him. It was David versus Goliath, with little David winning. Furthermore, for the first time, a battle was fought on which our whole modern way of life seemed to depend If the Athenians had lost at Marathon, Athens would have been finished, and then (many plurality think) Greece might never have gone on to develop the peak of its civilization, a peak whose fruits we moderns have inherit ed Isaac Asimov, pg. 104. some other important battle of the Persian Wars was the Battle of Thermopylae, which was fought in 480 B.C. 7,000 men were led by King Leonidas of Sparta, and his 300 Spartans were the backbone of the army. This battle was nearly between the Greeks (led by Sparta) and Xerxes, the Persian leader. The Greeks lost the battle because of a Phocian traitor that told Xerxes a way close to the mountain pass they were stuck in. Although every soldier died fighting, their valiant battle exalt the Greek lovers of freedom, who continued fighting against the Persians. There were other battles like Salamis, Himera, Mycale, and Plataea, and all of these were victories for the Greeks. Finally, in 478 B.C, the Persian War ended, and the Greeks were free from Persian rule.After the Persian War, Sparta and Athens emerged as the two just about powerful city-states in Ancient Greece. However, Sparta became intensely jealous of Athens because the Athenians had received most of the credit for the victory against the Persians. The Confederacy of Delos, or the Delian League, was an alliance of Greek city-states formed during the Persian War that was headed by Athens. Yet, although many of the city-states were involved in the alliance, most of the money from the Delian League was used to glorify Athens. The Spartans were vacate that Athens was using all of the money, and alike because of the fact that they were not the head of the League, so they formed their give birth alliance called the Peloponnesian League. In time, Spartas jealousy and suppuration dislike of Athens became so great that a civil war broke out, which led to the downfall of Athens Golden Age.Athens great Golden Age began in 478 B.C. and lasted for Fifty Years. This period of peace, prosperity, and progress in every aspect of culture and science flourished under the leadership of Pericles. Pericles was an aristocrat from a pro-democratic family, so it was natural that he believed in a nd supported nation. He was a good speaker and planner of Athens policies. He commanded the military and carried out contrasted policies of the slew he was not only respected by the people, but also by his colleagues. Pericles encouraged the arts and built great public buildings, such as the Parthenon. The Greeks, specifically the Athenians, were happy with what Pericles was doing with Athens. By making Athens seem more beautiful to other countries, Greece seemed to be more respected by the area.Pericles seemed like somebody who would be comfortable around others, especially because he was such a charismatic figure. However, he avoided social activities and had very few friends. His one passion in life was for politics he never mentioned gods or any sort of piety. Pericles was a well-educated and honest man that did not accept bribes or aversion his power. This led the Athenians to like him steady more, and he had more power than a king or a tyrant would have had. It was this power that allowed him to bring Athens to its height and turn it into the foundation of Western Civilization.Pericles favored sufficientity for all in Athens, excluding women of course. He passed a bill that gave a salary to jurors, which allowed the poor to serve. He also eliminated laws that allowed only the rich to hold a high finishice and paid officials, which permitted all citizens of all social classes to participate in the government. Pericles strengthened Athens by building walls from the city to Piraeus in order to safely move food and supplies. These walls became known as the Long Walls, and it was completed in 458 B.C. He was the very basis of Athens Golden Age and after his passing, life in Greece would never be the same. Their most glorious age had reached a sudden end, and their most terrible ordeal was about to begin Don Nardo, pg..While leading Athens during its Golden Age, architecture was very important to the Greeks. Pericles believed the citys greatness should be seen by the world, so he supported major construction of great structures. He had the Acropolis built, and its buildings contained Doric and Ionic columns. These were made of marble, and they represented the strength and grace of the Athenians. On top of the Acropolis was the Propylaea, or entrance way. The Propylaea incorporated traditional, Doric, and Ionic styles. It was designed by architect Mensicles circa 437 B.C. Another structure on top of the Acropolis is the Erechthium, which is the Temple of wingless victory.Perhaps the most famous building from the Golden Age was the Parthenon. This structure was built in 447 B.C., and was the spiritual center of Athens. It was designed and built by architect Ictinus, Callicrates, and sculptor Phidias. The Parthenon was a temple dedicated to Athena, Goddess of Wisdom, and it was Doric in style. The building was a symbol of Athens power, and demonstrated the blessing the city received from the Gods. It is 237 feet long, 110 feet wid e and 60 feet tall. It denotes harmony and symmetry in the way that the building is completely symmetrical. According to Greek Scholar John Miliadis, the Parthenon is more the work of inspiration than of calculation. It is a new deal of life, the vision of classical Athenians.Phidias was a friend of Pericles, and died in prison because of the aristocrats of Greece that disliked him. He was believed to be the greatest sculptor during Pericless Age. He carved a 525 piece frieze, which is a band of sculptured figures, around the perimeter of the Parthenon. He also sculpted a statue of Athena Parthenos, which stood 40 feet tall, and was composed of wood, ivory, and over 2, calciferol pounds of gold.The appearance of Athens was extremely important to its people, and this was clearly displayed through its architectural projects. The Parthenon, the Erechthium, and the Propylaea were all clear examples of Athens power and greatness. Pericles believed that Athens was the leader of the Gre ek World, and therefore, they had the responsibility of showing the world how cultured they were. Much of the money from the Delian League went into the building projects of Athens. Most members of the League were not upset about this however on the contrary, they were somewhat glad that Athens was representing Greece well.Art was also a significant part of Athens Golden Age. The purpose of their art was to preserve something visible, such as an idea or a feeling, by revealing its most prominent component. Greek sculpture was intended to be displayed in public places, which meant that it had to be worthy of the gods. The style of art shifted from obsolescent to Classical. The most important change in the art style may have been in the poses of the sculptures. Before, the sculptures were a bit in stiff, unrealistic poses, and the faces of the people ceaselessly seemed very calm.However, in Classical art, the poses of the sculptures were much more natural, and their faces depicted v arious kinds of emotion. This style of art focused on balance, completeness, proportions, and realism. Sculptors would try to create the perfect psyche that would be almost god-like. The ancient Greeks believed that the closest thing to perfection was the young athletic human body of a male. There were fewer structures of women than men, and their bodies would always be clothed. The mindset of the average Greek from this time period was women are not equal to men therefore, women cannot be anywhere near perfection. This kind of attitude was the footing why there were fewer works of art of women.Like architecture, Greek art during the Golden Age was very important in representing their country to the world. The phenomenal artwork heightened the worlds respect for the Greeks, which was what any country valued. The Greeks, particularly the Athenians, believed that is they showed the world how cultured and sophisticated they were, their country would be seen as superior and more pow erful. The sculptures of Athens Golden Age also captured the beliefs and ideas that people had at the time. They believed in beauty, balance, and harmony, which were clearly depicted in their art.Drama and literature was another area that flourished during the Golden Age. During this time, tragedies and comedies emerged, along with poems and epics. rhyme was regarded as almost a second religion, in the way that many people respected this subject of literature. Poets would write about anything that they believed was appropriate to write about. The epics ordinarily featured a hero, and its plot was both exciting and tragic. Famous epics include The Iliad and The Odyssey which were written by the blind poet, Homer.Two of the most prominent types of ancient Greek plays were tragedies and comedies. Tragedies were very near and intense, and they often showed man as uncertain, fragile, and dangerous. The relationship between God and mans relationship was often seen in tragedies. These tragic plays were based on serious themes which came from history and mythology, such as Aeschyluss The Persians. The greatest writers of tragedies were Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides.Aeschylus lived around 525 B.C., and he fought at the Battle of Marathon, Salamis, and Plataea during the Persian War. He was the first person to use talk in plays, and he was also the first to use costumes, high shoes, and masks. Aeschylus wrote well over 90 plays, however only seven of them have survived. It was through his buzz off in the Persian Wars that he was able to write The Persians. Sophocles lived around 495 B.C., and his most famous play was called Oedipus Rex. He wrote over 100 plays, but like Aeschylus, only seven of them exist today. Euripides lived circa 484 B.C., and he was interested in human psychology. He had his characters talk in everyday language unlike Aeschylus and Sophocles. Although he wrote over 92 plays, only 18 of them have survived.Tragedies usually had very dread ful endings, with the main characters punished for any action they choose. These plays were performed in an amphitheater, where the acoustics amplified the actors voices. They used masks not only to delineate their expressions, but because the mouthpiece of the mask was shaped like a megaphone, which further magnified their voices. More tragedies have survived than comedies, and they all contain universal themes such as love, hatred, revenge, duty, and morality.On the other hand, comedies were optimistic plays that usually focused on human flaws and allowed the audience to laugh at their own mistakes. They were full of slapstick gags, and they lacked cultivation by todays standards Don Nardo, pg. 75. Comedies usually involved music and dancing, and they would often include current events. Comedies were also performed in amphitheaters, and they would also be performed at festivals celebrating Dionysus, God of Wine, along with several tragedies.Aristophanes lived in roughly 448 B.C., and he wrote most of the surviving Greek comedies. His weapon was biting wit and sharp satire against the weaknesses of the time and against individuals of whom he disapproved Isaac Asimov, pg. 135. These individuals included everybody from rich people to poor people, and even extended to politicians as well. He wrote approximately 40 to 50 comedies, but unfortunately, like all of the other Greek dramatists works, only a number of them have not perished 11 to be exact.Greek drama was the main form of entertainment for the ancient Greeks. They had no televisions or movie theaters to go to, so they watched plays preferably. Not only were these dramas entertaining, they were both informative and a way for people to express themselves. Greek drama taught valuable lessons such as what the most important things in life really are, and they also taught people about human flaws. Ancient Greeks also learned to have a voice because of drama, which correlates to the type of government they h ad.The Golden Age of Greece also brought the first known historian in the world, besides its other accomplishments. This man is also referred to as the father of history, and his name is Herodotus. Herodotus began the system of writing down history texts, and if it were not for this historian, much of ancient Greeces history may not be known. Herodotus goal was to preserve the memory of the past by putting on record the astonishing achievements both of our own and of other peoples and more particularly, to show how they came into conflict Don Nardo, pg. 76.Science made great advances during the Athens Golden Age. The progressions in science provided a hypothetical basis for all happenings. Science was necessary for many things such as architecture matter, space, and motion math-specifically geometry and even music. Scientists and mathematicians were the first Greeks to not rely on Mythology to explain the happenings of the world, and they used information from ancient Egyptians and Mesopotamians to help them. However, the Greeks did not use experiments to find out how things work. Rather, they investigated the world around them and observed, guessed, and discussed their ideas with each other in order to reach a conclusion.One of the most famous scientists was Hippocrates of Cos. He lived in 460 B.C. and introduced medicine into 5th Century B.C. Hippocrates roll up data and made inferences. He also experimented on animals to learn physiology, which helped the Greeks deal with fractures and head wounds that resulted from wars. Hippocrates founded the first rational theory of medicine, one that did not depend on gods and demons. It is for this reason that he is often called the father of medicine. Isaac Asimov, pg. 136. He believed that illnesses were not caused by gods, but that these were excuses doctors used when they were too embarrassed to admit that they didnt know the cause of a disorder such as epilepsy.There were also many other scientists and mathemati cians of ancient Greece that accomplished many things. One of them, Leucippus, believed that matter was composed of tiny particles, and not substances that could be divided infinitely. He was the first person to ever suggest this, and his views were carried on by his student, Democritus. Democritus then began to call these tiny particles atoms, and his views on atoms were very uniform to modern views on them. However, other Greek scientists were not yet ready to accept his ideas, so naturally, they shot them down.There was also Eudoxus, who established that a year was not exactly 365 days long, but was six hours longer. Heraclides, a Greek astronomer, was a student of Plato that was the first person to believe in the rotation of the Earth. Aristarchus was also another astronomer, and he suggested that Earth and all other planets revolved around the Sun, but this too, like Leucippus and Democritus views, was unaccepted by other astronomers. Pythagoras was a mathematician that lived in the sixth Century B.C. He introduced the Pythagorean Theorem, which is used to find the length of a side of a right triangle if two lengths are given. He also believed that what separated humans from animals was reason.Science changed Athens and the Greek world by allowing people, for the first time, to realize that not everything depended on the gods and goddesses of their myths. People began to question everything around them, instead of leaving everything up to the will of the gods and this would eventually reach out to other parts of the world. As a result, of science becoming more prominent in Athens, people were more educated about themselves and the world that they lived in.One of the most important achievements Athens made during its Golden Age was in its government. Athens created the first democratic government the world had ever seen. Meanwhile, other Greek city-states such as Sparta had an oligarchy. Their oligarchy consisted of a small group of aristocrats that made important decisions for Sparta, and the rest of the citizens were equal. The main difference between these two types of government was that in Athens democracy, all citizens had the right to vote, and each vote counted as much as anybody elses vote.Athens democracy was a direct democracy, meaning that its citizens spoke for themselves and not through representatives. Their type of government valued law, order, and freedom. Every citizen, from the poorest man to the richest one, was allowed to hold office. All decisions were made by the Assembly, which consisted of any Athenian citizen that wished to participate. This group met 40 times a year, and they made decisions like fees for public service, which allowed the poor to hold office. There was also the Boule, which was a 500 man council that met daily to discuss issues that were urgent, and they also prepared the Agenda for the Assembly.As a result of Athens change in government to democracy, more Athenians gained equal rights-besi des women and slaves, though, they were not considered citizens of Athens. The differences in rights between the social classes in Athens grew very small, which naturally angered those in the upper class. The important matters of the city were decided by its people however, some people doubted the judgment of those who were less educated. Nonetheless, Athens democracy continued to expand and strengthen as the Golden Age went on. The Greeks idea of self-sufficiency was the freedom to do or realize his full potential, speak freely, and make decisions without interference C.M. Bowra, pg. 12.However, the beginning of the Peloponnesian War brought an abrupt end to the Golden Age. It began with Sparta declaring war on Athens in 431 B.C. and ended with Athens surrender in 404 B.C. Spartas hatred towards Athens increased over time, until finally they could not contain their petulance anymore. Greek city-states did not get along very well they were separated by their mountainous geography, which resulted in different governments, cultures, and customs. The difference was particularly great between Athens and Sparta in everything from their government to what they valued the most. What angered Sparta the most was that Athens received all the credit for defeating the Persians during the Persian War and this further increased tensions between the two city-states.The war began when Athens imposed a trade embargo on Megara, an ally of Sparta. They refused to let any Spartan ally trade in any ports belonging to the Delian League. Most of the ports were controlled by the Delian League, which meant that Spartan allies essentially had nobody to trade with. The Megarians began to starve as a result of this embargo. Pericles goal when rarefied the trade embargo was to discourage the Spartans from war. However, his plan was disastrous, and resulted in Sparta declaring war on Athens.Sparta was in control of the greatest army in Greece, and they decided to use this to their advan tage. The Spartans did not want a long and drawn-out war because that would result in many casualties and put a great strain on their city-state. They marched an army of 35,000 hoplites into Attica, and destroyed the entire countryside, leaving people in fear and chaos. Sparta cut off Athens grain supply, hoping to force them to surrender, but the Athenians were well supplied behind the Long Walls. The Spartans wanted to keep the war on land because of their strong military, and they continued to attack Attica relentlessly every year.Athens, meanwhile, had a better navy and treasury than Sparta. While Pericles was in charge during the Peloponnesian War, he ordered all people to retreat behind the Long Walls. He was aware that trying to defeat Sparta on land was near impossible, so he planned to fight on the water. By having all of the Athenians behind the Long Walls, they would be able to receive supplies from cargo ships and hopefully tire out the Spartan army. Pericles plan worke d throughout the first summer of the war, and when the Spartans left in the winter, the Athenians went back to their homes. The enemy attacked in the spring of 430 B.C., and the Athenians were forced to retreat behind the Long Walls once again.However, this time, there was something far more dangerous than the Spartan army that was attacking Attica and this was disease. A fast-spreading plague struck the Athenians and killed approximately 20% of the population. The plague lasted for four years, and after many people had died, the Athenians decided to leave the protection of the Long Walls and fight the Spartans. Unfortunately, Pericles was a victim of the plague as well, and his death in 429 B.C. left Athens weak and divided.Pericles death left several people vying for power over Athens. Among these people were Cleon and Nicias. Cleon wanted to fight Sparta until the Athenians reached a come up victory. Nicias, on the other hand, favored peace. Cleon won power over Athens, but soon died in battle. Nicias saw this opportunity to influence Athens to make peace, but Sparta and its allies refused peace and they continued to fight Athens without mercy.Eventually, Athens surrendered to Sparta in 404 B.C. after its fleet was destroyed at Thrace. The Spartan fleet cut off Athens remaining lifeline, which forced the Athenians to put an end to the war. The Spartans were not happy with just winning the war, though. They forced Athens to give up its fleet and foreign possession, take down the Long Walls, and change their cherished democracy into an oligarchy. After a while, the Athenians were allowed to restore their democracy, but the damage was done-their Golden Age came to an end.The Peloponnesian War left Athens devastated the land was completely destroyed, the food supply was scarce and the physical resources were nearly completely gone. The war is best known through Thucydides, an Athenian general. He wrote about the war in great detail, and was not biased he wrote only about the facts of the war. No one could have guessed that the conflict would bring about Pericles downfall, the end of the Fifty Years, and the exhaustion and cultural decline of all the city-states, Don Nardo, pg. 80. The Peloponnesian War stripped Athens of its power and greatness, and left Greece vulnerable to any foreign invasions.With the end of the Peloponnesian War, the Athenians were faced with the grueling task of rebuilding their city-state. People began to look for a principle that explained why things are the way they are, which began the rise of philosophy. The ancient Greeks believed that philosophy and science came from the same branch of study which is why scientists proved things using logic and reason. Philosophers were travelling teachers that wanted to learn the truth and seek wisdom through different methods. The three most famous philosophers of ancient Greece were Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.Socrates was the earliest of the Greek philosophers, and p articipated in the Peloponnesian War. He was born in 469 B.C. and he lived as a very plain and poor man. During the Peloponnesian War, he came to the conclusion that Man-not the universe-was the enemy of man. He believed that everybody knew more than they thought they knew, and he also believed that mans sense of right and wrong was a better guide to right conduct than what society said. His method of teaching was by asking questions, and has come to be known as the Socratic Method.Socrates was proclaimed the wisest man in Greece by the Oracle of Delphi after stating, All I know is that I know nothing. Despite being the wisest man, he was unpopular among the Athenians. He was arrested on three charges at the age of 70. The first charge was for corrupting the youth the second charge was for not believing in the citys gods and the third base was for introducing new deities to society. He was brought before a 501-man jury in 399 B.C., convicted of corrupting the youth, and then sente nced to death. He was convicted by the slim majority of 281 to 220 Athenians. Socrates had several opportunities to break out of jail, and yet, he refused to do so. He did not want to break the law by breaking out of jail, so he stayed in his cell, drank the poison hemlock, and died. legion(predicate) people today believe that the unjust death of this wise philosopher, which was the result of a vote of the people, is an example of the dangers of a direct democracy.Plato was another famous philosopher of Greece. He was Socrates student, and wrote down all of his teachings, for Socrates did not record anything. Plato believed that all souls were immortal and knew all truths, but as they grew up, they forgot everything. He believed that it was his job to help students remember these truths through the power of logic and reason. In 387 B.C., he founded the Academy, the first school for higher education in Athens, and he also wrote a book called The Republic. The Republic describes his Utopia which was a state ruled by philosophers. In this ideal state there were three classes the Guardians who governed the state, the Auxiliaries who were the military, and everybody else. In his book, he expressed his strong dislike for democracy, which he believed was the reason why his teacher, Socrates, had died.Plato also wrote The Dialogues, which displayed Socrates ideas along with his own. The Dialogues were composed of discussions that Socrates would have with other students while he was alive. In Platos eyes, Socrates was the wisest and most just and best man C.M. Bowra, pg. 138. So naturally, his death was an extreme loss to Plato. One of his philosophies, Platonism, stated that physical beings were imperfect, and that the spirit, soul, and body of a person were separated. These ideas passed into Christianity later on, where they influenced certain beliefs. Platos philosophical system and marvelous language make him one of the most gifted men who ever lived, C.M. Bowra, pg. 140. Over time, his ideas spread over Europe, and they eventually reached across the Atlantic Ocean, where it helped form the basis of Western Philosophy.Aristotle was the last, and perhaps the most influential, philosopher from the ancient Greek world. He attended Platos Academy at the age of 17, and he studied there for 20 years. He was born in 384 B.C., and he travelled to Athens to attend the Academy. There, he studied science, ethics, politics, and mathematics. Aristotle, unlike his teacher Plato, believed that research was the method people should use to investigate the world. His philosophy consisted of the power of direct placard to draw conclusions. He relied on the five senses, while Plato believed that they were not reliable. Evidently, these two philosophers did not agree with each other, yet they respected each others ideas.Aristotle was particularly interested in natural philosophy which was the study of natural phenomena in the world, which includes many fields o f science. Here, he made great advances, and was the most successful in his studies of biology. He classified animal species, and also concluded that dolphins were not fish, which proved that he was a full 2000 years ahead of his time. Aristotle also ways of observation to find a solution influenced Francis Bacon, who founded the scientific method.Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were all famed philosophers that changed their times. Their philosophies helped the Greek population to become more educated, and their ideas provided some guidance in rebuilding Athens after the Peloponnesian War. However, despite their great efforts to revive Athens former state of glory, the Peloponnesian War had indeed brought the end of the Golden Age of Athens. Their ideas and philosophies, although taught in vain, have become a great addition to Western Philosophy.The achievements that occurred during the Golden Age of Athens continue to affect the modern world. Although most people do not realize it, more than half of what is taken for granted, can be attributed to the Athenians. Pierre Leveque stated, One need only to look closely at our own language, our political institutions, and our culture, to discover to what extent the Greek experience lives on. Despite the fact that Athens Golden Age was over 2000 years ago, all of its accomplishments have not been forgotten, and they are being lived through Western Civilizat

Nelson Mandela Leadership Style

Nelson Mandela Leadership StyleNelson Rolihlahla Mandela, the draw and father of southeast African population, will turn 92 long time on the 18th of July. Born in Transkei, a village in the south-eastern area of southernmost Africa, he was exposed to the African history from his childhood repayable to his father being the chief of the village. As a result he gained a deeper under brave outing of the African government and the unfair and barbarous treatment by white bulk. Once again his father influenced his liveliness path as he was the one who gave the permission for Rolihlahla, to join elementary school where he was stipulation the English name, Nelson. Calling it fate or destiny Mandela in his biography wonders if his t apieceer gave him that name after the British sea captain Lord Nelson (Mandela N., 1994). contemptible on with his education, Nelson enrolled in the Fort Hare University. At that predict, his attractionship skills unfolded, winning an expulsion from Univ ersity for leading a student strike. Thus, he completed his degree in law at the University of South Africa (Notable Biographies, 2010). On the other hand, his personal animation included three marriages resulting in having six children, twenty-one grandchildren and three great-grandchildren (Mandela N., 1994).A point of reference is the time, in 1943, that Mandela joined the African National Congress (ANC) as an activist. Only eight historic period later, his low major presidential position was in place as the president of the ANC Youth League which he co-founded.Since its foundation, ANC aims to enhance the human beings adjusts and living conditions of black people in South Africa. ANC was the reason for Mandela to be sent in jail for nine months since he participated in protest activities. However, in 1960, ANC Youth League lost financial and militant support olibanum being banned. This made Mandela to realise that peaceful behaviour was not the method to change things in A frica. Pride and anger for the unfairness he was forced to face, necessitated him to pretend a military group that was operating il ratifiedly, called The Spear of the Nation. They were competitiveness the government in silence through sabotage. For instance, they were destroying peoples properties (Notable Biographies, 2010).Prior to this, in 1952, Mandela launched the first black legal company in South Africa. He was offering his legal advices to black people for free or low cost. However, seven years later, new laws were passed, forcing the entry of separated homelands for black people enhancing the racial segregation (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010). The later, let Mandela to become much active towards protecting the rights of black people. This resulted in Mandela being arrested and imprisoned in Johannesburg Fort, in 1962, for five years, although managing to escape. That did not last for long as he was arrested again and accused for sabotage and treason. As a consequence Mandela w as sentenced to life imprisonment. The first eighteen years of his imprisonment were in Robben island prison (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010). This as he himself described, was a prison with maximum security, forcing them to work hard, humiliating them and living under inhuman conditions.In 1968, his mother and his son died unless he was not permitted to attend either of the funerals. Contrary to that and to the treatment received by the government, he never stop supporting his beliefs thus rejecting a liberation offer by the president of South Africa, PW Botha. piteous on in the time of the imprisonment, better and more human conditions were offered to him in 1988 as he underwent a prostate surgery. Eventually, after twenty-seven years in prison and as a response to worldwide calls, Nelson Mandela was at last released in 1990 and elected as the president of ANC (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010). However if an evaluation was to be made for his life so far, the suffering he encountered is clearly sh own. The government did not allow him any visitors and they considered discussions regarding Mandela as illegal. However, these decisions against Mandela increased peoples perception about him, both worldwide and locally. On the top, in peoples minds Mandela was synonym to words like fairness, ethnical right and leader. He became an international symbol against racism (Notable Biographies, 2010).After being released from prison Mandela did not stop fighting for the black people. He started discussions with the existing president of South Africa, F.W. de Klerk, concluding that only a compromise between black and white people will prevent the occurrence of a civil war in their country. Eventually, the establishment of the new democratic government was a fact. This new government was giving the right to vote to all South Africans (Notable Biographies, 2010).The upcoming years of his life were the rewards for his nonstop race for equality. In 1993 he was awarded with the Nobel Peace Pri ze due to his achievement of the equality in voting rights. A year later, black South Africans and Mandela were allowed to vote for the first time in their life. The result was internationally expected. Nelson Mandela became the first black president of South Africa (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010). During the years of his presidency, he tried hard to understate the various political differences in South Africa. Moreover, he tried to build up a healthier economy in combination with establishing a more solid democracy. Additionally, he was one of the supporters of clearing peoples criminal record if that was created during the years of racism by the countrys government (Notable Biographies, 2010).Ending a successful century his sequence as his countrys president ends in 1999. However, his political career doesnt end. He was placed at the position of the statesman where he was acting as the third caller in the process for peace (Notable Biographies, 2010). The first decade of the new centur y found Mandela facing the accursed disease, as he was diagnosed with prostate cancer only if he fought and succeeded for once more in his life.As all things come to an end, at the age of eighty-five he retired from the public life. However, only two years ago at the age of ninety, he showed that his vision of equality and fairness never stopped bothering him. Through a speech he urged and tried to set off the young generation to continue the fight for social justice (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010). Summing up his career, The United Nations General Assembly declares July 18 Mandela Day as a pension to his contribution to world freedom (Telegraph.co.uk, 2010).In general, Nelson Mandela can be characterised as an excellent leader, with tidy judgement and listening skills, sensitive and open-minded. He was an intelligent leader since it requires good strategic plan and clever manoeuvre in order to defeat your enemies without humiliating them. Once, he stated that my life was shaped by cust om, religious rite and taboo and this was the alpha and omega of our existence (Mandela N., 1994). This excellent knowledge of his origin enabled him to be more confident of what he was fighting for. Thus his vision of a peaceful South Africa without any racial segregation became a more approachable target. This explains one of his favourite quotes a good head and a good heart are al shipway a formidable combination (Brainy Quotes, 2010). Moreover, he was exposed to significant leadership education throughout his career. For instance, seeing the world from your enemys look enables you to identify easier their strengths and weaknesses, planning a more effective strategy (Times Magazine, 2008).The worldwide discussion of whether you are born or developed as a leader is not a question for Nelson Mandela. It is unanimously believed that Mandela had the charisma to be a leader. This is supported by his acts throughout his life and the recognition he faced worldwide. see Mandelas life, it can be seen that the way to lead the people was influenced from his childhood. This is because he used to attend the local tribal meetings, where he was observing the speakers, and absorbing every mild detail of leadership characteristics. These principles were his significant tools throughout his political life. In his biography, he notes that in the meetings he was just concluding the discussions, most of the times without adding anything new but taking everyones talk into consideration (Mandela N., 1994). Strategically he admits that in the back of his mind he was following a well planned schedule. A leader is like a shepherd he supports, in a way that the flock thinks that it rules, but actually the shepherd directs the movements from start till the end (Mandela N., 1994).Moving on with the evaluation of Mandelas characteristics, one can describe Mandela as team manager. This is because he was a supporter and a listener of his followers concerns but he always had in mind hi s primary goal, being both task and people oriented. He tried to motivate people by making each individual to feel necessary and important thus increasing their willingness to help and achieve their goal.Making a critical analysis of Mandelas overall location, characteristics of a level five leader can be observed, i.e. Mandela represents an executive leader. This is because there is a combination of professional will and personal humility. Being focused on his main(prenominal) goal, he was not afraid of being dishonoured. For instance, his life imprisonment showed that he was not afraid to accept the consequences of his own acts even though humiliation was present. showing professional will, even when he was in the plane to be taken to Robben Island he did not stop thinking as a leader. He was expression at the area as a strategist where he was seek to find ideal places to launch his army in order to continue fighting for his vision (Mandela N., 1994). This way of thinking als o characterise him as a strategic innovative leader.As a transformational leader he showed his various ways of leadership. He was engaged in individualized consideration and this can be proved by his refusal towards the president P.W. Botha to release him from prison. Furthermore his boxing training intensify his skills. Attracted by the science of boxing, i.e. the democratic and strategic rules that needed to be followed and not the violence of it, Mandela used the sport to improve his leadership initiative and self confidence. This attitude categorises Mandela as an alchemist and achiever. Renamed voluntarily by his boxing colleagues, Chief, showed that his leading skills were used even during his daily routine (Mandela N., 1994).All the aforementioned characteristics show his authenticity as a leader. One can be completely persuaded that he knew how to manage his skills and which personality traits to reveal for each occasion. Two important quotes that he used throughout his lif e were firstly that If you talk to a man in a language he understands, that goes to his head. If you talk to him in his language, that goes to his heart (Brainy Quotes, 2010). This shows that he knew the way to cope with people and influence them. Secondly, Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world (Brainy Quotes, 2010). In order to achieve his vision he always had in mind that goodness and forgiveness are two important aspects to fulfil.To sum up, Mandelas life and actions made people realize that everyone can have a dream, big or small, good or bad. However, this does not mean that it will be publicly accepted. People will fight ones vision but look at Mandelas story what stays in mind is that, you should never give up. Developing a well organised plan and creating a well structure strategy are the key components for a successful path to be followed. Although Nelson Mandela spent many years in prison, he never stopped trying to transform his vis ion into reality. In an article in Guardian newspaper he states that if people of courage and good conscience are prepared to stand and fight there is nothing we cannot achieve (The Guardian, 2010). Thus leading with vision, courage and always being a shepherd is the lesson gained from Nelson Mandelas leadership.ReferencesBrainy Quotes. 2010. Nelson Mandela Quotes. online accessed at 14/06/2010 unattached at http//www.brainyquote.com/quotes/authors/n/nelson_mandela.htmlMandela N. 1994. Long Walk to Freedom. AutobiographyNotable Biographies. 2010. Nelson Mandela. Encyclopaedia of World Biography. online accessed at 14/06/2010Available at http//www.notablebiographies.com/Lo-Ma/Mandela-Nelson.htmlTelegraph.co.uk. 2010. Nelson Mandela Timeline. Telegraph Media Group Limited. online accessed at 14/06/2010 Available athttp//www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/southafrica/7819734/Nelson-Mandela-timeline.htmlThe Guardian. 2010. My hero Nelson Mandela by Gordon Brown. on line accessed at 15/06/2010 Available athttp//www.guardian.co.uk/books/2010/apr/17/nelson-mandela-hero-gordon-brownTimes Magazine. 2008. The Secrets of Leadership from Nelson Mandela. online accessed at 15/06/2010 Available athttp//www.deliverfreedom.com/blog/time-magazine-the-secrets-of-leadership-from-nelson-mandela/

Communication Skills in Social Work | Essay

Communication Skills in mixer Work EssayIn the context of use of Social Work practice learning(Childrens Services Assessment Team)and the affectionate work role discuss a particular piece ofpractice, giving consideration to the skills and models of talk and empowerment that were utilise.IntroductionOrganized under the United Kingdoms Department of Health, Childrens Services represents a division of Social Care which is administered in to each one region under the auspices of the Childrens Commissioner (Children Act 2004). Childrens Services is committed to the safeguarding and rights of nipperren through high quality service over a broad array of sustenance. The Childrens Assessment Team under the Department of Health has the responsibility for the handling of children and their families who take for benne each referred and or have contacted their respective Child Care agency (London Borough of Barking Dagenham, 2006). The preceding includes the offering of advice and he lp while ensuring that the correct decisions are r interceptered with regard to the urgency dictated by the great deal along with the proper response level.The preceding represents an assessment as carried out in each individual circumstance, which requires skills, parley and the powers to carried the aforementioned out. This examination shall look into a particular area of practice concerning Social Work in the Childrens Services Assessment Team, giving consideration to the skills, models of communication and empowerment involved.The Referral and Assessment looking at of Childrens Services represents one of the about important areas of the m whatever(prenominal) services offered by this Department in that it is responsible for acting upon referrals concerning children and their families that are in bring of assessment (Southwark Council, 2006). The Referral and Assessment Team provides intervention as well as support and is responsible for the initial intake bear upon coveri ng the assessment of require and urgency, prioritizing said theatrical roles on an individual basis (Barnett London Borough, 2006). whizz of the most important areas, which includes child protection, legal proceedings and that children in compulsion are looked subsequently, is the initial movement which identifies a child in need as opposed to child protection (Wrexham County Borough, 2001). The manner in which the referral was initiated has a bearing upon the type of skill, communication and application of techniques involved. In this instance, this examination shall utilize the example of an abused child that has been brought to the attention of Child Services through calls made by a touch on citizen, or new(prenominal) means. The data and information gathered in the initial contact, regarding the allegation, requires immediate follow up to assess the truthfulness of the allegation and thus whether gain ground action is warranted (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Said refer ral can come from a piece of sources, such as neighbors, teachers, school nurse, and other sources (Barnett London Borough, 2006). Once the turn has been initiated the most important aspect entails the skills, and communication techniques employed.The core mission of all genial work is the promotion of social justice through its practice (Healy, 1998, pp. 897-914). Within this framework, social workers are in a system that promotes collaborative approaches representing analysis and prioritization (Healy and Mulholland, 1998, pp. 3-27). Once the decision has been made to see the child in question, as a ensue of either the suspicion or proof regarding action macrocosm warranted, the skills in communication as well as observation come into play. Thompson (2003, pp. 10) advises that the importance of communication is that it permits us to transmit information from one person to a nonher and it represents a complex, multilevel event. In communicating with children as well as adults , social workers need to be well versed in interaction that accompanies communication and contact, and the complexities entailed, as well as the messages on a verbal and non verbal flat solid (Thompson, 2003. pp. 10-12, 33 34, 182-183).In those instances where there is an absence of external physical evidence or medical examination, the social worker has to be able to ascertain from conversations and observations with the child as well as the adults involved regarding tone of voice, eye movements, reactions, and other behavior whether truthful replies are being given. The preceding represents areas that encompass theory as well as practice. Adams et al (1998, pp. 253-272) state that the context of social work has changed over the past twenty years as a result of bare-assed public management systems that have decreased the cling to of theory along with the value driven aspects involved in human social work.In the context of childrens services the Referral and Assessment Team inte rcede on behalf of the child through policy decisions and active support when the initial interview uncovers need, depending upon the circumstances. This aspect represents compass point number six under Article Two, General Function, of the Children Act 2004 (Children Act 2004). The Department of Health (2006) provides for advocacy safeguards for children to protect them from abuse as well as poor practice. This aspect provides for children themselves to be a part of the deal, having and active voice that can be and is heard to participate in reaching determinations (Department of Health, 2006). Under provisions as set forth, the standards and core principles that children can expect are identified as (Department of Health, 2006)The role of children in advocacy,policy context,equal opportunities,confidentiality,publicity,accessibility,independence,complaints,procedures, andthe management and governance of servicesThe preceding along with empowerment provides the child with a real voice as well as organization that is committed to ensure their well being as found under the Childrens Services Regulations 2005 of the Children Act 2004 (Childrens Services command Regulations, 2005). Through a formalized inspection, review and analysis process involving two or more inspecto reckons and commissions, the process is ensured of impartiality as well as adequate oversight. Articles 2.3 under this provision sets forth that relevant assessments, inspections, reviews, investigations and studies are conducted on cases. These measures are a part of the framework of checks and balances incorpo ordaind into the process for the safeguarding of the child who comes to the attention of Childrens Services. Empowerment also provides for the offering of assistance, counseling and advice to parents in need of help in order to safeguard a childs well being. The formalized process sets forth specific guidelines in all of the indicated areas, as well as a broader scope for a matter of such national importance.ConclusionOwing to the sensitive nature of services involving children, specific case studies or references to such are not available, for the obvious reasons. Under the context of the Referral and Assessment Team of social work, a hypothetical example was used as the broad framework for the examination of practice learning and the social work role with consideration given to the skills and models of communication and empowerment. The Children Act 2004 and the Childrens Services Inspection Regulations, 2005 set forth specific procedures, guidelines and framework for the handling of child cases providing oversight safeguards through redundancy features. severally regional Council works in partnership with the departments of information and Health, as well as other social work teams to ensure the co-ordination of assessment of needs leading to the formulation of individual care plans and support packages (Beacon Council, 2006). The process of referral a nd assessment is conducted under procedures that are of course subject to the individual expertise levels of the interviewers and case workers. However the safeguards of a multi-level internal review and follow up process catches any potential instances whereby a child might slip through the system due to any number of reasons. As is the case with any process involving humans and organizations, there are those occasions when the system or the person fails, however, given the multi level review and follow up process, such mistakes do not last too long.BibliographyAdams, R., Dominelli, L., Payne, M. (1998) Social Work Themes, Issues and Critical Debates. Houndsmills MacmillanBarnett London Borough (2006) Supporting Families Division. Retrieved on 10 declination 2006 from http//www.barnet.gov.uk/index/health-social-care/children-and-family-care/supporting-families-division.htmBeacon Council (2006) Children and Families. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http//www.bexley.gov.uk/servic e/social/childrenandfamilies/disabilities.htmlChildren Act (2004) Children Act 2004. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http//www.opsi.gov.uk/acts/acts2004/40031b.htm1Childrens Services Inspection Regulations (2005) Childrens Services Inspection Regulations. Retrieved on 12 December 2006 from http//66.218.69.11/search/cache?p=uk+children%27s+services+assessment+teamfr=yfp-t-501toggle=1ei=UTF-8u=www.dfes.gov.uk/consultations/downloadableDocs/Childrens%20Services%20Inspection%20Regulations%20Consultation%20Document%20-%20PDF.pdfw=uk+childrens+services+assessment+teamd=IY3kv5IFNg0Eicp=1.intl=usDepartment of Health (2006) Department of Health Childrens Advocacy. Retrieved on 11 December 2006 from http//www.dh.gov.uk/Consultations/ResponsesToConsultations/ResponsesToConsultationsDocumentSummary/fs/en?CONTENT_ID=4017049chk=vFWyblHealy, K. (1998) Participation and Child Protection The Importance of Context. Vol. 28. British Journal of Social WorkHealy, K., Mulholland, J. 81998) Discourse a nalysis and militant social work Investigating practice processes. Vol. 25, Number 3. Journal of Sociology and Social WelfareLondon Borough of Barking Dagenham (2006) Childrens Services Childrens Assessment Team. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from London Borough of Barking DagenhamSouthwark Council (2006) Childrens Services. Retrieved on 10 December 2006 from http//www.southwark.gov.uk/Uploads/FILE_10982.pdfThompson, N. (2003) Communication and Language A Handbook of Theory and Practice. Palgrave MacmillanWrexham County Borough (2001) Assessment Framework for Children in deal and their families. September 2001. Wrexham Social Services Department, Directorate of Personal Services, Wrexham, United KingdomAquatic Plants Rate Of PhotosynthesisAquatic Plants Rate Of PhotosynthesisAcid rainfall is a know effect of worldwide warming, which has prostituted many aquatic environments and aquatic nominates throughout the world. This national investigates the effects of dose rain on an aquatic fructifys rate of photosynthesis. The seek question is How does the change in pH of an ditchmosss home ground due to excommunicationting rain affect the plants rate of photosynthesis? Samples of elodea were placed into two corrosiveic results, 0.01 hoagie solution of nitrous acid and 0.001 Molar solution of nitric acid, in a photosynthometer. The control grouping is water in the photosynthometer with a pH of 7. Each trial took 24 minute of arcs and the experiment was done in a high school chemistry lab near a window ledge, away from develop sun faint. After each 24 instant period, the amount of atomic number 8 step downd by the plants is metric to determine the rate of photosynthesis.As the environment effects more acidic, the elodea samples the great unwashed of oxygen judgment of dismissal decreases. The mean(a) sight of oxygen release for the elodea samples in the control water group is 0.57 mL, 0.29 mL for the pH 4.0 group, and 0.15 for the pH 3.5 group. The results from this study suggest that there are big deflections among the three groups and that acid rain negatively affects the rate of photosynthesis.1.0 Introduction1.1 Rationale of StudyNowadays, global warming has become a big issue on the forefront of environmental problems. Its not simply the devastation of rising temperatures all over the world but other effects as well which can be much more dangerous and calumniatory to the human race. One of these effects is the increase in the moroseness of precipitation, or acid rain. At present, acid rain affects large parts of the United States and is especially noticeable near large cities. The annual acidity value averages at pH 4 but values as low as pH 2.1 have been observed. It is confirmed that the increased use of natural fuck up and development of factories have been associated with the increasing acidity of precipitation and thus, efforts had been made to rely on more clean, renewable energy sources and the deve lopment of air quality procession standards. However, not all the economic and ecological effects due to the introduction of strong acids into the natural systems are cognise and therefore, this study looks into one of its many harmful effects, the acidification of freshwater ecosystems.Studies suggest that no matter how small the change in pH of any aquatic ecosystem is, large amounts of magnesium and calcium would still be lost in the vicinity affected by acid rain. As a result of the loss of these vital elements, the response and reco truly of any aquatic ecosystem toward the decrease in acid deposition would be delayed significantly. Because of this, any further decrease in pH of the ecosystem volition bring about exponential function increases in damage to any animated organism within the affected area. Just like how damage to the human immune system would lead to significant, exponentially increasing damage to the human body in the form of diseases, the damage done to th e recovery mechanisms of an aquatic ecosystem due to acid rain opens up possibilities for catastrophes that could be of a far worse magnitude.One such possible disaster is the harming of aquatic plants rates of photosynthesis. Alongside the endangerment of the population of crustaceans, insects, and fish within the aquatic ecosystem, the damage done to the aquatic plants rates of photosynthesis such as Elodea Canadensiss, can be one of the worst possible effects of acid rain and global warming. This study is worthwhile in that plants are the basis of the food chain and any damage inflicted upon the process of photosynthesis in general would surely mean that our very own existence is in jeopardy.1.2 AimThe aim of this newsprint is to study the effects of the change in pH of Elodea Canadensiss environment on the plants rate of photosynthesis. In a broader context, this study investigates the effects of acid rain on aquatic plants.Hence, the research question is How does the change in pH of an elodeas freshwater habitat due to acid rain affect the plants rate of photosynthesis?The rate of photosynthesis is measured with a photosynthometer in which oxygen released from the elodea samples are collected under differing pH environments. The elodea samples are placed in differing solutions of nitric acid, which are used to simulate elodea living in freshwater habitats affected by acid rain. Because oxygen is a product of photosynthesis and is correlated to the rate of photosynthesis, oxygen is then collected from the various experimental groups. Most experiments that require the measurement of the rate of photosynthesis of a macrophyte determine the changes in oxygen concentration of the system in which the macrophyte is kept in and thus, this study is done in the most popular manner. The volume of oxygen collected from each group would then be analyzed to determine the optimal conditions for an aquatic plant to live in and the effects of acid rain on the rate of ph otosynthesis.1.3 Acid RainBecause the value for unpolluted precipitation is officially set at pH 5.65, the same value as distilled water, acid rain is a term that describes rain with a pH of less than 5.6. Man-made emissions of sulfur and nitrogen pollutants had always been blamed as a study cause of acid rain but a genuine cause-effect relationship has never been determined. However, it is certain that sulfur and nitrogen compounds react with the atmosphere to produce acids that would displace the pH of precipitation. There are also many natural sources of these sulfur and nitrogen compounds. For example, approximately 50 percent of atmospheric nitrogen compounds are produced by lightning discharges, which whitethorn bring about acid rain.The real importance of studying acid rain though is to study its effects on the natural ecosystems. One such ecosystem that is affected greatly by acid rain is the aquatic ecosystem. The chemical composition of lakes is heavily influenced by pre cipitation and many studies have suggested that acid rain has caused lake acidification. Most importantly, the changes in pH of these ecosystems due to acid rain appeared to have damaged aquatic plants transfiguration, causing a decline in first-string productivity. Because these aquatic plant communities are primary producers, any damage done to their metabolism mechanisms (photosynthesis) can drastically reduce the food supply and energy take to the woods within the affected ecosystem. Thus, acid rain has the potential to reduce the supply of minerals and nutrients and endanger the existence of all organisms within an ecosystem, especially aquatic ecosystems.1.4 Marine PhotosynthesisThe metabolism of plants is commonly referred to as photosynthesis. Photosynthesis involves two kinds of processes, photochemical and enzymatical, meaning that the rate of photosynthesis is a function of irradiance and enzyme activity. No enzymes are involved in the photochemical process in which th e plant absorbs light in the range of 350 and 700 nm in wave aloofness. In this process, chlorophyll molecules absorb light and excites electrons, which go through the electron transport and end up producing adenosine triphosphate and NADPH. As its name implies, the photochemical process involves light and is purely chemistry.The other process is the light-independent enzymatical process of the Calvin cycle. This process occurs after the light-dependent reaction for it requires the ATP and NADPH to reduce carbonic acid gas to carbohydrate. At the start of this process, six carbon dioxide molecules attach to six 5-carbon ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) molecules to create six molecules of a 6-carbon compound. Each of these 6-carbon compounds splits into two 3-carbon molecules called phosphoglycerate (PGA). This results in 12 PGA molecules. Energy from ATP and electrons from NADPH are then needed to reduce each of these PGA molecules into twelve G3P (glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate) molecules. Finally, two of these G3P molecules are used to form one glucose molecule and the remain ten G3P are reassembled into RuBP molecules.Marine Photosynthesis also requires CO2 to start and this CO2 is acquired when CO2 is fade away in water. This process is represented by the following formulasCO2 + H2O H2CO3CO2 + OH- HCO3-The dissolved CO2 in the water can either make the water increase or decrease in pH depending on the pH, temperature, and salinity of the environment. The concentrations of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) in the aquatic environment form a complex equilibrium, which is needed to sustain optimal living conditions for its inhabitants the two compounds play a vital biochemical role in the pH buffering system, which strongly affects photosynthetic organisms.1.5 Elodea CanadensisElodea Canadensis is an aquatic vascular plant that spends its entire life cycle under the surface of a body of water. It is a perennial with a flexible branches stem and fibrous roots. Its take into accounts do not have petioles and they are always in groups of three to seven spread out evenly along the entire length of the stem. The species of Elodea Canadensis is commonly known as waterweed and is abundant in North and South America. However, there are 17 species of the genus Elodea and these plants are common throughout the world with use as an aquarium plant. Its use in science experiments is fairly common as well due to its strongly photosynthetic, dense chloroplast structure. When exposed to a strong light source, the oxygen bubbles given off by the plant is clearly visible. Another reason for its use in science experiments is that it is able to live enough after being cut into smaller strands to be experimented on.2.0 Variables2.1 Independent VariableThe elodea plants are placed in 2 different nitric acid solutions of change pH and molarity. Strands of elodea with 10 leaves each are subjected to either a 0.001 molar solution of nitric acid with a pH of 4.0 or a .01 molar solution of nitric acid with a pH of 3.5. The solution and elodea are placed into the barrel of the syringe in the photosynthometer. Litmus paper is used to measure the pH of the acid solutions.2.2 Dependent VariableThe rate of photosynthesis of the elodea samples are affected by the varying pH of the solutions they are subjected to. The rate of photosynthesis is indicated by the volume of oxygen given off by each 10 leaf elodea strand and collected in the photosynthometer over a 24 hour experiment period.2.3 Control VariableThe control variable is tap water with a pH of 7.0, a neutral solution, in the photosynthometer. It is used to determine whether or not the acidic solutions the elodea strands are tasteed in actually have an effect on the plants rates of photosynthesis as compared to a neutral aquatic environment.2.4 ConstantsAll trials are done in the same chemistry laboratory next to a window ledge, away from direct sunlight. The manner and the solut ions inside the syringe of the photosynthometer are kept at a constant 26.4 Celsius. Each elodea sample is a 10 leaf strand. The same volume of solution is used for every trial in the photosynthometer.3.0 Procedures3.1 Preparation before experimentation3.1.1 Test TrialsBefore any definite procedure of experimentation is made, political campaign trials needed to be done first in order to see which acid solutions would not kill elodea in a 24 hour period. Strands of elodea are placed in experiment tubes with 0.001 molar, 0.01 molar, and 0.1 molar nitric acid solutions and are labeled. By the end of the 24 hour period, the elodea in the test tubes with the 0.1 molar nitric acid solution died since the leaves lost all of their green color and oxygen bubbles were not released from the leaves even before the 24 hour period. This meant that the plant could not perform photosynthesis anymore and was dead. The other two elodea samples were alive and thus, the 0.001 molar and 0.01 molar ni tric acid solutions were used for experimentation to pantomime the effect of acid rain on an aquatic plants rate of photosynthesis.3.1.2 Nitric Acid Solutions PreparationThe 0.01 Molar solution of nitric acid is made by mixing 1 mL of a 1.0 Molar solution of nitric acid with 99 mL of tap water in a calibrated cylinder. The tap water is measured with the graduated cylinder and a pipet is used to hold 1 mL of the 1.0 Molar solution of nitric acid.1 Liter of a 0.001 Molar solution of nitric acid is prepared by mixing 1 mL of a 1.0 Molar solution of nitric acid with 999 mL of tap water in a liter plastic laboratory bottle. 1 Liter of this solution is made since it is more convenient to create a large volume of an acid solution with a low concentration than it is to create a small volume of a extremely diluted acid solution.3.1.3 Apparatus PreparationThe photosynthometer is assembled by connecting a syringe to a graduated 1-cm3 pipette with a short length of rubber tubing. The lengt h of the rubber tubing is arbitrary as long as it is tight enough to secure the syringe to the pipette, preventing any liquid from coming out of either the syringe or pipette.The apparatus is fixed in a vertical position with the test tube clamp and ring stand (Figure 1), using the test tube clamp on the syringe and connecting that to the ring stand.3.2 Method for Experimentation with the Photosynthometer3.2.1 Application of Elodea Sample and Solutions into the PhotosynthometerBefore experimentation, a sample of elodea is taken by cutting a strand of elodea with 10 leaves. The mass of the elodea is recorded and measured in order to look for patterns after experimentation. The loon of the syringe is then removed and the elodea sample is placed into the barrel of the syringe. Since any liquid placed in the syringe with the plunger off will fall straight through and out the apparatus, the elodea sample is placed in the apparatus first before anything. 30 mL of the 0.001 Molar solutio n of nitric acid is then poured into the barrel of the syringe and the barrel is immediately sealed with the plunger to prevent any more liquid from leaving the apparatus. No matter what, some of the solution would still leave the apparatus with the plunger off. Therefore, 30 mL of the solution is used in the barrel so that any excess amount of the nitric acid solution could be expelled by pushing down on the plunger until 15 mL of the solution is left field in the barrel of the syringe. With the apparatus removed from the test tube clamp and the open end of the pippette pointing upwards, any trapped air inside the syringe and pipette is expelled by slowly and softyly pushing the plunger into the barrel until all of the trapped air expelled, making sure not to have any of the solution leave the pipette.3.2.2 Maintaining ConstantsWhen the apparatus is placed back onto the test tube clamp and ring stand, the temperature of the nitric acid solution inside the barrel of the syringe is m easured with an invisible thermometer and recorded. The temperature is measured to make sure that the temperature remains constant for all trials since temperature does affect the rate of photosynthesis. To maintain constant temperatures and weather conditions as well, experimentation is done in one room for all trials and begins at the same time of day. In my case, experimentation was done in the schools chemistry laboratory, which was kept at a constant 26.4 Celsius, at 1600 US central time.3.2.3 Data CollectionThe volume (the location of the meniscus) of the nitric acid solution in the pipette of the apparatus is measured and recorded. The time is measured and recorded as well. The elodea sample is left in the apparatus for 24 hours. After that time, the amount of oxygen the sample of elodea gave off is measured and recorded by looking at the location of the meniscus of the acid solution in the pipette. All experimental procedures are then repeated with the 0.01 Molar nitric aci d solution and tap water instead of the 0.001 Molar nitric acid solution.Table 44.7 ANOVA testThe ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) test is also used to further verify the difference of the results among the experimental groups. The result of this ANOVA test indicates whether the experimental variable (pH of the elodeas environment) causes significant difference on the elodeas rates of photosynthesis.Before the ANOVA test could be carried out, three assumptions are madeObservations are independent (the value of one observation is not correlated with the value of another observation).Observations in each group are normally distributed.Homogeneity of variances (the variance of each group is equal to the variance of any other group).The null hypothesis of this test is there is no difference between the means of the different groups (pH 7.0, 4.0, and 3.5). Then, the statistic test is carried out to find the F ratio.F Ratio = Mean square between groupsMean square within groupsIf the computed F ratio is greater than the F critical value at the implication level of 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected.5.0 ConclusionGraph 1 shows that the mean volumes of oxygen release among all the groups had significant differences. The average volume of oxygen release for the pH 4.0 group is 0.29 mL, which is about half of the mean volume of oygen release for the control group, pH 7.0, of 0.57 mL. The mean volume of oxygen release for the pH 3.5 group is 0.15 which is about half of the mean volume of oxygen release of the pH 4.0 group as well. As shown in Graph 2, this trend is shown to be of an exponential decline in mean volume of oxygen release as pH increases as the environment becomes more acidic, the mean volume of oxygen release declines more sharply. According to Table 3, the average volume of oxygen release of the pH 4.0 group differs from the control pH 7.0 group by 49%. The average volume of oxygen release for the pH 3.5 group differs from the control pH 7.0 group by 74%. T hese values are large and again evince the significant difference of the results of the experimental groups to those of the control group. According to Table 5, ANOVA test results, there is a significant difference between the mean volumes of oxygen release between the pH 7.0 and pH 4.0 groups, as well as the pH 7.0 and pH 4.0 groups. However, there is no significant difference between the results of the pH 4.0 and pH 3.5 groups. From the ANOVA test results, the hypothesis that the elodeas rate of photosynthesis would be harmed in more acidic environments is supported. A change from an environment of pH 7.0 to pH 4.0 would greatly reduce an elodea plants rate of photosynthesis while a change from an environment of pH 4.0 to pH 3.5 would not bring about a significant reduction in an elodea plants rate of photosynthesis. The standard devation values from table 4 state on average how far the data varies from the mean. For each group, the standard devation is comparatively low compared to the averages of each trial and thus, the data collected and the methods used to collect the data is very precise.Increasing the acidity of an environment results in a number of physical, chemical, and biological changes. A chemical change that could occur is the change in the availability of carbon. With the pH of the environment at jolly acidic levels, the amount of dissolved HCO3- in the water look out overs. This dissolved HCO3- in the water is the plants source of carbon used for photosynthesis and it is proven that aquatic plants have the best rate of photosynthesis in slightly alkaline environments due to the availability of carbon in the dissolved HCO3-. The lower pH levels in the environment also affect the enzymes in the cells of the plant. If pH levels drop low enough, enzymes such as RuBP used in the Calvin Cycle would shut off and would no longer carry out the chemical reactions needed for photosynthesis. not only would the acid in the environment kill the enzymes b ut the acid would also destroy the plant proteins, lipids, and membranes, causing plant cells to malfunction and a study reduction in the rate of photosynthesis. Specifically, the lowered pH of the environment causes alterations in the chlorophyll molecules, which are highly essential to the process of photosynthesis.6.0 Evaluation and SuggestionsPossible haphazard errors include the inaccuracy of the solution molarity stated, mass stated, and volume of oxygen release stated. These random errors may be caused by the inaccuracy of the measuring equipment. The equipment such as graduated cylinders and pipettes are fairly accurate though to an extent.One possible systematic error could be the different masses of each elodea sample. The mass of each strand may affect the volume of oxygen released for mass may determine the amount of chloroplast in each sample. Since each elodea sample was cut from a larger strand, this cutting may also cut each samples life. With a samples life cut sh ort, the volume of oxygen collected from this experimentation may not truly reflect how plants act outside of these laboratory conditions. Also, the worst source of error in measuring the rate of photosynthesis with a gas appealingness method may be the gas storage within the leaves. If some oxygen is stored in the leaves, the oxygen collected in the photosynthometer may not fully represent the samples true rates of photosynthesis in the tested environments.Some measures that could be taken to prevent these errors could be to use more accurate equipment and using plant samples of similar mass as well as number of leaves.Total Word Count 3,002

The Political History of Italy Essays -- History of Italy Essays

The political record of Italy is quite extensive. The Greeks were the first to assure in Italy and conventional colonies in the southern part of the country and in Sicily. There was not a sense of political reality as much as there was a civilization (Windows on Italy- History). While the Greeks controlled the south the Gauls, or Celtic people, ruled the north and the Po Valley. But the most important group to settle in Italy was the Etruscans. Because of their advanced civilization, the Etruscans were the only ones to establish political and cultural ideas before the Roman imperium (Windows on Italy- History). At the end of the Etruscans rule, Rome began a sum of Italy and established Latin to be the general language (Defusco).By 6th century BC, the city of Rome came into power. During this growing power, Rome began fighting other civilizations to exposit its territory. Amongst these populations was Romes long m friend Carthage. Rome soon became greedy and made war on Carthag e in the Second Punic war (Defusco). The Punic Wars lead Rome to gain territories along the Mediterranean basin. At the end of the Third Punic War, Rome defeated Carthage and became the major Mediterranean host power (Windows on Italy- History). In all of Romes defeats, Greece was the most significant. The Romans adopted Greek customs and ideas as their own. This changed the society of Rome by maturation a new culture and way of thinking. The Roman Empire was soon developed by the ideas of Augustus, leading to a more democratic way of governing. The Empire created an expansion of Roman civilization by its leaders conquering other civilizations. The Empire ruled for many years under many different Emperors. During this time there was a mixture of rule between a hereditary Emperor and a Senate. With the fall of the Empire after the death of Theodosius, Italy was then ardour from neighboring civilizations in the north and west. These invasions soon lead to the rising of power in in dividual city-states (Defusco). The citizens of the cities abolished the ideas of feudalism and searched for their own identity. Their searching lead to violent acts amongst themselves in determining who should govern, but despite the fighting, each city contributed greatly to the economy and helped to raise the cultural energy of Rome (Defusco). By the year 1861, a structured Italy was... ...e the beginning of its unification, Italy has battled with the differences of the north and south. It will take a long time to achieve economic stability in the south, but one that must be reached in order to increase the economic growth for the whole country. With its strong nationalistic views, Italy is well on its way to achieving its goals. Works CitedCIA-World Factbook-Italy. 2001. http//www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/it.html (26 Nov. 2001).Defusco. Italy-Culture and History. 2001. http//www.defusco.ch/en2_italy.html (26 Nov. 2001).Electric Library. Columbia University short en 2001. http//www.encyclopedia.com/articlesnews/06518.html (26 Nov. 2001).Embassy of Italy in the United States. Washington D.C. 2001. http//www.italyemb.org (26 Nov. 2001).U.S. Department of State. 2001. http//www.state.gov/r/pa/bgn/index.cfm?docid=4033 (26 Nov. 2001).Windows on Italy-the Constitution. Italian National Research Council 2001. http//www.mi.cnr.it/WOI/deagosti/constitu/const1.html (26 Nov. 2001).Windows on Italy-the History. Italian National Research Council 2001. http//www.mi.cnr.it/WOI/deagosti/history/tribes.html (26 Nov. 2001).

The Role Of Dreams Essay -- essays research papers

Are intakes a source of reliable divination? Generations upon generations seem to have thought so. They incubated imagines by travelling afar, by fasting and by engaging in all other manners of self deprivation or intoxication. With the exception of this highly dubious role, dreams do seem to have three important functions a. To process repressed emotions (wishes, in Freuds speech) and other mental content which was suppressed and stored in the un certified. b. To order, classify and, generally, to pigeonhole conscious experiences of the day or days preceding the dreaming (day residues). A partial all overlap with the former function is inevitable some sensory enter signal is immediately relegated to the darker and dimmer kingdoms of the subconscious and unconscious with proscribed being consciously processed at all. c. To stay in touch with the outside world. External sensory input is interpreted by the dream and represented in its unique language of symbols and disjunction. R esearch has shown this to be a rare event, independent of the timing of the stimuli during sleep or immediately prior to it. Still, when it does happen, it seems that even when the interpretation is dead wrong the substantial information is preserved. A collapsing bedpost (as in Maurys famous dream) will become a french guillotine, for instance. The message conserved there is physical danger to the neck and head.All three functions are part of a much larger one The consecutive adjustment of the model one has of ones self and of ones place in the world to the incessant stream of sensory (external) input and of mental (internal) input. This model modification is carried out through an intricate, symbol laden, dialogue between the dreamer and himself. It probably also has therapeutic side benefits. It would be an over-simplification to say that the dream carries messages (even if we were to limit it to correspondence with ones self). The dream does not seem to be in a position of p rivileged knowledge. The dream functions more like a good friend would listening, advising, sharing experiences, providing penetration to remote territories of the mind, putting events in perspective and in proportion and provoking. It, thus, induces relaxation and acceptance and a better functioning of the client. It does so, mostly, by analysing discrepancies and incompatibilities. No call into question that i... ...d to one tenth their size without appreciably losing information. The same principle is applied in speed reading skimming the unnecessary bits, getting straight to the point. The dream employs the same principles it skims, it gets straight to the point and from it to yet another point. This creates the sensation of being erratic, of abruptness, of the absence of spatial or temporal logic, of endeavorlessness. But this all serves the same purpose to succeed to finish the Herculean task of refitting the model of the Self and of the World in one night. Thus, the sel ection of visuals, symbols, and collective symbols and of the discontinuous mode of presentation, their preference over alternative methods of representation is not accidental. This is the most economic and unambiguous way of representation and, therefore, the most efficient and the most in compliance with the four principles. In cultures and societies, where the mass of information to be processed is less mountainous these features are less likely to occur and indeed, they dont. SourcesSam Vaknins Psychology, Philosophy, Economics and Foreign Affairs weave Sites found at www.geocities.com/vaksam

Dantes Inferno :: essays research papers

The Divine comedy was a key element to the development of European literature. By writing the epic style poem in the vernacular, he enabled all people of general literacy (ie, the commoner) with the liberty to read his work of art. This was such a boundary event because scholars of the past had always written in Latin including deuce of the most influential people in his life, the epic poets Virgil and Homer. Latin was the language of the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church therefore no one ever thought Dantes use of the vernacular was capable of such poetic expression. From a mere literal perspective, The Divine Comedy can then be viewed as a pioneer in the defiance of Catholicism.Through the mere ennoble The Divine Comedy, one can further unearth many significant aspects of the poem. A true comedy refers to two classical modes of composition. The tragedy was the showtime of these styles where the plot flowed from a high andpleasant beginning to an extremely low and destructi ve conclusion. The second technique is a classic comedy where the plot elevates from demoralise beginning to an elevated and triumphant ending. In canto 1 it describes the 1st part of the journey vividly crossing the mtn. He keeps falling and cant quite grow it. When the book ends Dante has surpassed a great deal and had learned a lot from his journey.Dantes work is not solely dependent on either of the two styles rather it incorporates aspects of both approaches. Theplot of The Inferno mirrors a classic comedy for it progresses from the horrors of Hell to the joys of Heaven, nevertheless it is constantly presenting the reader with individual situations of tragedy. EX-alive b4 jesus(virgil,limbo),suicidesthose who are good, gays.The Divine Comedy is a truly universal work for it deals with the most significant question of humanity, the existence of an afterlife and the consequences of our lives on Earth. His convo w Virgil, Dante asks why we are here. this Dante was so footsure i n his abilities as a poet that he attempted to answer such questions through the voice of the vernacular.

Comparing Andrew Marvells To His Coy Mistress and John Donnes Flea Es

Andrew Marvells To His Coy Mistress and John Donnes FleaAndrew Marvell and John Donne both wrote carpe diem poetry full of vivid imagery and metaphysical conceits. This message kindle be clearly seen in the poems To His Coy Mistress by Marvell and Donnes Flea. Though both poems take a similar approach to the topic addressed, it is Marvell that writes to a greater extent thoughtfully and carefully, coercing instead of Donnes seemed demandingbegging.The speaker in Coy Mistress is trying to convince his woman of choice that it is much better to have finish now than to save her virginity for the future. Why save it until they are married? The man wants to experience the pleasure now. Marvells message here seems to be that instead of agony about the future planning exactly when we should do things, humans should take things as they come and enjoy them before it is too late. This theme relates to all aspects of life, non just sex.Donnes narrator, though having the same goal and idea, i s far more blunt in his reasoning. Noticing a flea that presumably had bitten them both, he ar...